A review of pyrazines in grapes and wine

This article won the Amorim Academy's prestigious award in 2003 for the best research paper for Dominique Roujou de Boubee. It is an excellent review of the state-of-the-art in pyrazine research and also includes practical tips on dealing with these compounds in the vineyard and in the winery.


The entire article is available at: http://www.academie-amorim.com/us/laureat_1992/roujou_amorim_2003.pdf

Documents
9pyrazines.pdf

Canopy Management

A review of pyrazines in grapes and wine
Assessment of Tempranillo vines using the VITUR score-sheet
Berry temperature and solar radiation alter anthocyanin populations in Merlot
Canopy management for fruitfulness
Delayed winter spur-pruning can alter yield components in Merlot
Early leaf removal for crop control and improved juice composition in Sangiovese
Effect of crop load on the ripening of Cabernet Sauvignon using four rootstocks
Effect of crop yield on the sensory properties of Cabernet wine
Effect of leaf removal on yield and juice composition
Effect of mechanical thinning on yield and fruit composition in Tempranillo and Grenache
Effect of pruning on recovery and productivity of cold-injured Merlot
Effect of shoot number on leaf area and crop weight relatioship in Sangiovese
Effect of various training systems on Viognier grape and wine composition
Effects of manual and mechanical leaf removal in Barbera
Estimation of quality in the vineyard using a new viticultural index
Exclusion of sunlight from Syrah grapes
Influence of fabric mulches on fruit composition of Cabernet franc in the Finger Lakes
Influence of timing of shoot thinning on vine, juice, and wine parameters
Influence of trellis system and shoot positioning on light interception by two cultivars with different architectures
Interaction of deficit irrigation and crop load in Cabernet
Non-destructive estimation of leaf area
Pre-bloom leaf removal effects on berry size and must composition
Prediction of pruning weights using remotely-sensed data
Remote estimation of vine canopy density
The effects of mechanical- and hand- cluster thinning operations
The importance of the timing of crop thinning on wine quality parameters
Vine microclimate and norisoprenoid concentration in Cabernet Sauvignon

Green Approaches

Compost benefits and quality for viticultural soils
Effects of chilling plus garlic extract on bud dormancy release
Evaluation of new methods of powdery mildew control in the greenhouse
Evaluation of new methods of powdery mildew control in the vineyard
Influence of undervine floor management in an organic Pinot noir vineyard
Managing vineyard soil organic matter with cover crops
Phenolic content and antioxidant activities in juices from organic or conventional grapes
Soil and grape quality in biodynamically and organically managed vineyards
Use of organic wastes for soil-covering of vineyards
Vineyard microorganisms as sources for biological control of Botrytis

Irrigation

Comparing the three most common methods of measuring vine water status
Comparison of various indicators of plant water stress
Drought tolerance of different Vitis species
Effect of irrigation amount and cut-off date on table grape performance
Effect of irrigation on the sensory properties of Cabernet wine
Effects of irrigation on Tempranillo grown in Spain
Effects of Partial Rootzone Drying on vine growth and fruit quality
Effects of restricted irrigation at different stages of berry development
Grapevine crop coefficient as a funcion of shade under the canopy
Influence of berry size and irrigation on anthocyanins and tannins
Influence of irrigating Chardonnay in a cool, humid climate
Influence of mycorrhizas on the water status and growth of different rootstocks
Influence of partial rootzone drying on anthocyanin accumulation
Interaction of deficit irrigation and crop load in Cabernet
Irrigation effects on proportions of berry seed, skin and flesh
Terroir influence on vegetative development and must and wine composition
The effect of water stress and scion/rootstock type on vine performance
Thermal imaging as a viable tool for monitoring plant stress
Towards a simple indicator of water stress in grapevines
Water economy of Italia table grapes under different irrigation regimes
Water stress and polyphenol content

Nutrition

Critical plant tissue nutrient values
Drip fertigation with macro- and micronutrients
Effect of fertilization timing on must composition and nitrogen uptake in a cool climate Riesling
Effect of foliar nitrogen and sulphur on Sauvignon blanc aroma
Effect of nitrogen fertilization on tissue nitrogen levels, yield and grape composition of Syrah on three different rootstocks
Foliar fertilization
Influence of undervine floor management in an organic Pinot noir vineyard
Long-term effect of organic amendments on Cabernet franc fruit composition and wine sensory
Nitrogen and potassium fertilization effects on anthocyanin content and color of Tempranillo grapes
Review of the role of mycorrhizas on mineral nutrition
Riesling: changes in norisoprenoid content with nitrogen fertilization
The roots of fine wine
Untypical ageing off-flavor due to long-term nitrogen fertilization

Other

Advancement of grapevine maturity in Australia between 1993 and 2006
Alcohol, wine, and vascular diseases: an abundance of paradoxes
Association between cluster primary branching and number of flowers in Cabernet Sauvignon
Climate drivers of red wine quality in Australia
Cluster architecture in Vitis vinifera
Correction of a breeding error and identification of new sources of resistance to disease
Developing high-colored grape varieties for cool climates
Development of Chardonnay flowers in a hot and a cool climates
Development of tyloses in grapevine shoots after pruning
Dietary fiber in wine
Effect of screwcap or cork on levels of SO2 and aromas in Sauvignon blanc
Effects of rachis position on size and maturity of berries
Extreme heat reduces premium wine production in the US in the 21st century
Functioning of water vessels in the berry during ripening
Leaf wetness spatial variability within the vine canopy
Parentage of Merlot and related varieties of Southwestern France
Pyrazine levels in four red grape varieties
Resveratrol improves the health of mice subjected to a high-calorie diet
Shoot-based sampling of Vitis vinifera clusters
Smoke-derived taint in wine #2: release of volatile phenols during fermentation
Smoke-derived taint in wine: Effect of post-harvest exposure on chemical composition and sensory aspects
The impact of climate change on the phenology of winegrapes in Australia
The influence of a Mediterranean diet and red wine on metabolic syndrome
The present and future of the international wine industry
The stomach as a bioreactor
Use of Decision Tree Analysis to determine viticulture and winemaking parameters important to quality
Use of microscale fermentations in grape and wine research
Variation in Syrah berry size starts before fruitset but resynchronizes at harvest
Within-field temporal stability of viticultural parameters

Pests And Diseases

A technique for screening vine progeny for resistance to nematodes
Alternatives to methyl bromide
Comparison between Pierce's Disease symptoms and Water stress symptoms
Controlling bird damage with alarm and distress calls
Deactivation of Botrytis spores through glucanase treatment
Dormant cutting mealybug control
Double pruning of grapevines: A cultural practice to reduce infections by Eutypa lata
Evaluation of new methods of powdery mildew control in the greenhouse
Evaluation of new methods of powdery mildew control in the vineyard
Foraging behavior of birds damaging table grapes in South Africa
Manipulating irrigation to reduce insect damage
Mechanical and insect transmission of Pierce's disease
Protection of pruning wounds from infection by Eutypa lata
Quantification of Botrytis by ELISA
Solute transport in Syrah berries during development and late-ripening shrinkage
Structure of xylem vessels and implications for bacterial disease spread
Vineyard microorganisms as sources for biological control of Botrytis

Phenolics And Color

A comparison of methods to analyze phenols in research
A comparison of methods to analyze phenols in the winery
A faster assay to measure phenolics in the winery
A review of the effects of winemaking procedures on phenolic extraction
Abscisic acid improves color in table grapes by changing gene expression
Anthocyanin extractability assessment of grape skins by texture analysis
Berry temperature and solar radiation alter anthocyanin populations in Merlot
Chemical and sensory evlaluation of astringency
Color characterization using two UV-Vis spectrophotometric methods
Color evaluation of winegrapes by CIE L*a*b* parameters
Comparison of polysaccharide- and protein-based tannin precipitation techniques
Content and extractability of anthocyanins and tannins in four varieties
Correlation of tannin analysis and perceived astringency
Effect of caffeic acid on the color of red wine
Effect of different cofactors on the color of red wine
Effect of maceration techniques on phenolic composition
Effect of microoxygenation on anthocyanins
Effect of polyphenols on the perception of Sauvignon blanc aroma
Effect of pre-fermentation addition of cofactors on the phenolic composition of Tempranillo
Effect of temperature on anthocyanin biosynthesis
Effect of variety on anthocyanin extractability
Incorporation of a radioactive anthocyanin into large polyphenols during fermentation and wine aging
Influence of berry size and irrigation on anthocyanins and tannins
Influence of different maceration techniques and microbial enzymatic activities on resveratrol content
Influence of irrigation and berry maturity on flavonoids
Influence of vine structure and climatic region on phenolic composition
Nitrogen and potassium fertilization effects on anthocyanin content and color of Tempranillo grapes
Phenolic content and antioxidant activities in juices from organic or conventional grapes
Polymeric pigments in berries and wines
Polyphenol information in food labels
Rapid determination of phenolic components in wines using UV-visible spectra
Rapid extractionn of polyphenols from red grapes
Tannin amount, structure, and extractability in various red varieties
Tannin levels in berry skins and seeds during ripening
Use of microscale fermentations in grape and wine research
Variability of tannin concentration in red wines
Water stress and polyphenol content

Roots And Soils

Alternative soil management for sandy vineyards
Are terroir and precision viticulture compatible?
Comparison of using a cover crop or using herbicides on vine root distribution and soil characteristics
Cover cropping in the Portuguese Vinhos Verdes region
Effect of cover crop species and floor management practice in a coastal region vineyard
Effect of floor management on vine growth, yield, and fruit composition
Effect of root pruning on vine water transport
Impact of soil texture differences on vigor and juice composition
Influence of climate, soil, and cultivar on terroir
Influence of cover crop species and floor management practice on vine performance
Influence of cover crop species and floor management practices on soil organic matter and macronutrients
Influence of fabric mulches on fruit composition of Cabernet franc in the Finger Lakes
Influence of mycorrhizas on the water status and growth of different rootstocks
Performance of three Malbec clones on two rootstocks in Napa Valley
Pre-planting cover crops affect weed and vine growth on first-year vineyards
Review of grapevine rooting patterns
Review of the role of mycorrhizas on mineral nutrition
Root distribution of different rootstocks
Terroir effects depend more on soil depth than on soil type
The roots of fine wine
The soil component of terroir

Vineyard Design

Cabernet clones
Chardonnay clones
Effect of various training systems on Viognier grape and wine composition
Merlot clones
Response of Tempranillo to four training systems
Row orientation choice for windy locations

Vineyard Establishment

Influence of elevation and slope on Touriga Nacional yield and juice composition

Wine Microbiology

A comparison of a plating method and a DNA-based method to identify the yeast present in a commercial fermentation
A rehydration protocol for active dry yeast
Analysis of yeast and bacteria on grapes, wine and cellar equipment
Biofilm formation and adhesion properties of various Brettanomyces isolates
Co-fermentation with Pichia kluyveri increases varietal thiols in Sauvignon blanc
Detection and enumeration of Hanseniaspora species in wine and juice
Direct identification of yeasts in a commercial fermentation
Effect of S. cerevisiae and S. bayanus on Cabernet Sauvignon wine color
Effect of Saccharomyces bayanus on Chardonnay aroma and composition
Genetic and physiological diversity in Brettanomyces bruxellensis
Identification of yeasts in a commercial native fermentation by plating
Influence of must nitrogen addition on ethyl carbamate formation by lactic acid bacteria
Inhibition of malolactic fermentation under low- and high- nitrogen conditions
New yeasts for low-input winemaking
Survival of wine microorganisms after bottling
The role of yeast on Sauvignon blanc flavor
Wine microbial populations: A real terroir characteristic
Yeast strain affects pyrazines and sensory profile in Cabernet Sauvignon wine

Wine Production

A hypothesis for the presence of potassium/hydrogen adenosinphosphatases in grapevines
A review of pyrazines in grapes and wine
A review of the effects of winemaking procedures on phenolic extraction
Amelioration of Smoke Taint in Wine: Membrane Filtration/Adsorption
Biofilm formation and adhesion properties of various Brettanomyces isolates
Comparison of polysaccharide- and protein-based tannin precipitation techniques
Effect of carbonic maceration and addition of white grapes on young Tempranillo wine
Effect of ethanol and glycerol on Riesling wine body and related characteristics
Effect of juice bentonite treatment on yeast fermentation
Effect of maceration techniques on phenolic composition
Effect of method of addition of bentonite during small-scale fining trials
Effect of oak chip characteristics on the aroma of red wine aged in tanks or used barrels
Effect of pre-fermentation addition of cofactors on the phenolic composition of Tempranillo
Effect of variety, vintage and winery on the prediction by Vis-NIR spectroscopy of glycosilated compounds
Effect of various fining proteins on tannin fractions
Effect of yeast strain and nitrogen supplementation on ester production in Chardonnay
Electrochemical microoxidation of red wine
Factors that affect commercial protein stability tests
Formation of hydrogen sulfide during white fermentations
Gelatine, caseine and potassium caseinate: Effect on color, phenolic compounds and sensory characteristics
How well do stability tests predict haze formation during storage and transport?
Impact of closure type and headspace on composition and sensory properties of Cabernet Sauvignon wine
Impact of stopper type on oxygen ingress at bottling
Influence of gelatin molecular weight on wine phenolic composition and taste
Influence of SO2 on the formation of aldehydes in white wines
Measuring dissolved oxygen during microoxygenation
Partitioning of potassium during commercial red fermentations
Rapid determination of phenolic components in wines using UV-visible spectra
Relationship between potassium, sodium, and pH in grape juice and wine
Relationship between total acidity, titratable acidity and pH in wine
The effect of tannin additions on Syrah sensory properties and phenolic composition

Wine Sensory

Amelioration of Smoke Taint in Wine: Membrane Filtration/Adsorption
Aroma of monovarietal Spanish white wines
Chemical and sensory evlaluation of astringency
Co-fermentation with Pichia kluyveri increases varietal thiols in Sauvignon blanc
Comparison between 'free-profiling' and 'traditional profiling'
Consistency of wine quality assessments from expert wine tasters
Correlation of tannin analysis and perceived astringency
Defining vegetal aromas in Cabernet Sauvignon using sensory and chemical evaluations
Effect of bottle closure on perception of wine quality
Effect of cheese on red wine flavor
Effect of crop yield on the sensory properties of Cabernet wine
Effect of ethanol and glycerol on Riesling wine body and related characteristics
Effect of foliar nitrogen and sulphur on Sauvignon blanc aroma
Effect of irrigation on the sensory properties of Cabernet wine
Effect of polyphenols on the perception of Sauvignon blanc aroma
Effect of wine knowledge and sensory expertise on individual wine preference
Electronic nose evaluation of Cabernet Sauvignon fruit maturity
Evaluating the wine tasters
Evaluation of enological tannins with an 'electronic nose'
Influence of vigor on fruit and wine composition and sensory characteristics of Pinot noir
Monitoring fermentation aromas with an electronic nose
New method to quantify astringency in red wine
New Zealand Sauvignon blanc distinct flavor characteristics: Sensory, chemical and consumer aspects
Perception of ideal cheese and wine combinations
Relationship between Australian consumers' wine expertise and their purchasing behavior
Review of sensory evaluation practices in commercial wineries
Riesling: changes in norisoprenoid content with nitrogen fertilization
Smoke-derived taint in wine #2: release of volatile phenols during fermentation
Smoke-derived taint in wine: Effect of post-harvest exposure on chemical composition and sensory aspects
Terroir influence on vegetative development and must and wine composition
The role of yeast on Sauvignon blanc flavor
Untypical ageing off-flavor due to long-term nitrogen fertilization
Yeast strain affects pyrazines and sensory profile in Cabernet Sauvignon wine